Geographical Features

BOUNDARIES & BORDERING COUNTRIES

Pakistan came into existence on 14 August 1947 as an independent and sovereign state. Pakistan occupies a key position in a strategic location. Located in South Asia, Pakistan lies between 23 degrees 30 minutes and 36 degrees 45 minutes north latitude, and between 61 degrees and 75 degrees 31 minutes east longitude. Pakistan stretches 1,600 kilometers north to south and about 885 kilometers east to west, covering a total area of 796,095 square kilometers (310,403 square miles).

Afghanistan is situated to the west of Pakistan along a border of 1,400 miles long. The boundary agreement between Afghanistan and the British Indian Government was signed on 12 November 1893. Since then, the border has been known as the Durand Line.

China is situated to the north. Pakistan's Northern Areas, consisting of Baltistan, Gilgit and Hunza, have a long common border with the Chinese province of Siankiang. The border runs from the Pamir tri-junction of Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan to the Karakoram Pass and was demarcated by a Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement of 2 March 1963.

To the east is the Indian territory of East Punjab and Rajasthan, with a common border about 1,610 kilometers long. It is a very long border with no natural barriers, such as rivers or mountains, to separate the territories of these two independent neighbours, a border agreement was signed on 1 January 1960.

Iran is situated to the west, south of Afghanistan. The border is about 590 miles long and runs from Koh-i-Malik Siah, the trijunction of Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan, to Gawader Bay in the Arabian Sea. A boundary accord between Iran and Pakistan was signed in 1960. To the south of Pakistan is the Arabian Sea.

COASTLINE

Pakistan has only one coastline, which stretches along the Arabian Sea ; the Makran coast, it is Balochistan's southern strip and stretches for 754 kilometers (470 miles) along the Arabian Sea. The distance in a direct line, however from Karachi (Sindh) to Gwadur Bay (Balochistan) is about 335 miles (543 kilometers), and from Karachi to Sir Creek (Rann of Kutch) is about 211 kilometers (135 miles).

Long, sandy beaches, rugged promontories, and tidal creeks characterize the coastline. Three ranges of hills rising to over 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) run parallel to the coast: the Coastal Makran Range, 30 kilometers (20 miles) inland; the Central Makran Range, 130 kilometers (80 miles) inland; and the Siahan Range, 200 kilometers (125 miles) away from the sea.

There is very little rain in the Makran region; the few villages and towns along the coast and between the hills are sustained by spring water. The rivers are generally filled by floods after the occasional heavy rains. Owing to scanty rainfall, the saline nature of the soil, and the physical conformation of the land, the shore is almost entirely desert, presenting a succession of arid clay plains impregnated with saline matter and intersected by watercourses. The most characteristic feature of the coastline is the repeated occurrence of promontories and peninsulas of white clay cliffs, table-topped in form. The intermediate tract is low, and in some places has extensive salt water swamps behind it. The chief ports on the coast are Sonmiani or Miani, Pasni, and Gwadar.

The Makran coast is of great historical importance. Alexander the Great marched half his army home along the Makran coast in 325 BC, and Muhammad Bin Qasim came from Baghdad to Sindh through Makran in 711 AD. The Makranis stood firm against the Mughals, but bowed nominally to the British Raj.

Turbat is the divisional headquarters of Makran. It is only since 1971 that some effort has been made to develop the region. There is no road along the coast, but daily flights connect the three main coastal towns of Pasni, Gwadar, and Jiwani with Karachi.

Gwadar and Jiwani belonged to Oman for about 200 years. The Khan of Kalat gave them as a present to the Sultan of Oman in the 18th century. In 1958 they were sold back to Pakistan by Sultan Qaboos bin Saeed of Oman for 10 million dollars.

DESERTS

CHOLISTAN

An extensive area in the southwest of Pakistan, Cholistan is covered with rolling sand plains and dunes. It is an area separated from the Indus valley by the dry channels of the Ghaggar River in the Punjab. Lying between Thar on the west and Rajputana on the southeast, this extensive desert is called Cholistan or Rohi.

The desert of Cholistan extends over 10,399 square miles and includes two-thirds of the former state of Bahawalpur. It is in fact an extension of the Thar desert, whose western edges are formed by the ancient river called the Hacra. Cholistan region can be divided into two parts: Greater Cholistan and Lesser Cholistan.

Greater Cholistan, in the south, stretches over an area of 700 square miles. The dunes, or tibbas, can rise as high as several hundred feet in the southern quarter, while in Lesser Cholistan, which stretches over 3000 square miles, the dunes are low. Salt flats occur among the sand throughout Cholistan. They can stretch for several miles or be as small as a few hundred yards each. Flash storms convert them temporarily into lakes, and the runoff is collected in natural depressions or man-made ponds called tobas. Receiving five inches of rainfall a year, this region is not drained by any perennial stream. Therefore, the topography has been formed mainly by the wind. The only other sources of water are wells, which are rare in Cholistan.

Given these circumstances, the population is nomadic, moving from one water hole, or toba, to the next. When these dry up, they migrate to the semi-permanent settlements around the wells; in extreme draught they move to the permanent settlements at the edge of the desert.

The climate of this desert region is as hot as 1250F (or above) in summer; winters are cold. The annual rainfall is four to five inches, and the rainy season lasts from July to August.

THAR

The district of Tharparkar consists of two distinct parts called Thar (the desert) and Parkar (the small hilly tract in the extreme southeast). It was first known as Thar Parkar districts but subsequently became Tharparkar in 1920.

It lies in Sindh between 240-10/ to 250-44/ north latitude and 680-55/ to 710-05/ east longitude. It is bounded on the north by Sanghar District, on the west by Hyderabad District, on the south by the Rann of Kutch and on the east by Marwar (India). The desert area to the east consists of barren tracts of sand dunes covered with thorny bushes. There are also lakes in the desert area, of which the largest is Saran which supplies salt to the entire district.  It provides revenue to the government and work for the people. Minerals such as raper-khar or chambo used as washing soda are also found in the desert.

The common plants of the desert area are thukar, phog (Calligonum polygonoeides), ak (Calotropes gigantea), buh, khabai, mural, kandi (Prosopic speugeras), baneri and rohiro.

Thar has a tropical desert climate, and April, May and June are the hottest months. The mean maximum temperature during this period is 410C. December, January and February are the coldest months. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures during this period are 280C and 90C respectively.

Rainfall varies from year to year. Most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months between June and September. The winter rains are insignificant, while April, May, October and November are completely dry. Famines are quite frequent in the desert when there are no rains. The Thar is entirely dependent on rainfall, and the country becomes picturesque with green patches on sand dunes after the rains. Jawar and bajra are the main crops grown in the desert, but when the rain fails, the inhabitants migrate to the irrigated portion of the district and earn their livelihood by labour and return home when the next rainy season approaches.

In the desert, dangerous snakes such as khapar, cobra, plain, lundi and other snakes are generally found in the rainy season in great numbers. Many deaths are caused by snake bites. There are also black scorpions.

Hyena and lynx are found, mostly where the desert meets the Rann of Kutch. Another animal is the gorkhar (wild ass) used for carrying baggage. In the interior of the desert, camels are the only means of transport and of ploughing the land.

FORESTS

Natural vegetation comprises forests, shrubs, and grasses and is determined by climatic conditions and soil types. The climate of Pakistan is too dry for forests, except in the northern hilly and sub-mountainous belts.

Wood cutting, overgrazing, and the annual removal of grass cover from the slopes are all processes which handicap soil formation and the development of forests. As a result, there is a marked deficiency of tree cover in Pakistan. For a balanced economy, with an agrarian base, 20-25 percent of the land should be under forest. In Pakistan, Only 4.8 percent of the total area is forested. Of the 2.8 million hectares classified as forests in 1980, Punjab had 0.3 million, Sindh 0.6 million, NWFP 1.4 million, Balochistan 0.1 million, and the remaining 0.4 million were in Azad Kashmir. In addition, there are 1.7 million hectares of scrub land and 6.1 million of range land in the country. Over two-thirds of the forest land is under public ownership; the remainder is privately, owned. Forests are classified as "reserved," "protected," or "unclassified."

Reserved and protected forests are publicly owned. Tree felling in Reserved forests is done only under the strict supervision of the Forest Department. In protected forests, the local population has some traditionally acquired rights of use, for example, grazing and collecting dried branches for firewood. Unclassified forests, under private or communal ownership, are so badly depleted that large areas of such so-called "forests" are devoid of tree cover. The forests of Pakistan can be divided into six groups.

North And Northwestern Mountainous Forests

The annual rainfall in the northern and northwestern mountains is a little more than 100 centimeters, adequate for the growth of evergreen mountain trees. The forests on these mountains consist of evergreen trees with pointed leaves. These trees rise to a great height, but it takes them fifty to sixty years to grow to their full size. In winter, severe cold checks their growth. They are softwood forests. The principal coniferous trees include fir, deodar, blue pine, and spruce. They grow generally at altitudes of 900-3800 meters. Above the tree line 3,800 meters, there are stunted alpine forests.

Chestnut and walnut trees found in the mountains shed their leaves in winter. The lower slopes of the mountains are covered with forests of cherry, poplar, and other broadleaf trees. Forests of this kind are located in the districts of Rawalpindi, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Malakand, Dir, Swat, and Chitral. Deodar, kail, spruce, and fir are some of the most important trees of this region. Transportation of wood from these mountains to the plains below is difficult and costly. This is one reason why timber is so costly in Pakistan.

The climate of the region is suitable for plantation of poplar, willow, and eucalyptus. These trees grow fast and are a good source of low-grade timber.

 Submountainous Shrub Forests Of The Foothills And Plains

Below 900 meters there are some pines, but more broadleaf trees, such as oak, maple, birch, walnut, and chestnut. Submountainous forests are found in Gujrat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Mardan, Peshawar, Kohat, and Attock Districts. They consist of phulai, kahu, jand, and blackberry. The hard wood of these trees is generally used for fuel and house construction. In these areas, mulberry, willow, poplar, shisham, eucalyptus, teak, and other trees can also be planted.

 Western Dry Mountainous Forests (Balochistan Hills)

In Quetta and Kalat Divisions of Balochistan there are some dry hill forests at altitudes between 900 and 3,000 meters. The trees include chilghosa, pine, and pencil juniper. In 1972-73, a small beginning was made to improve the forests of Balochistan by stabilizing the sand dunes in Pasni and Gwadar and planting trees along 250 kilometers of highway. In Dera Ghazi Khan, Rajanpur, and Dera Ismail Khan Districts, poplar, mulberry, and dharek can be grown with some effort.

 Riverain Bela Forests And Irrigated Plantations

These forests have been planted in areas where canal water is abundant. The most important of these are Changa Manga, Chichawatni, Khanewal, Burewala, Thal, Shorkot, Bahawalpur, Sukkur, Taunsa, Guddu, and Kotri. In these areas, high-yielding commercial units of hardwood species have been planted with shisham, mulberry, and acacia trees. Shisham is a high-quality cabinet wood extensively used for furniture.

Changa Manga forest near Lahore is the largest of the irrigated forest plantations. First established about a hundred years ago, it now cover 5,000 hectares and has an annual yield of 0.7 cubic meters of timber and 17 cubic meters of firewood per hectare. This yield is some ten times that of the natural forests in Pakistan.

Other sizeable irrigated plantations are Wan Bachran in the Thal area, Chichawatni in Sahiwal District, and some parts of Ghulam Muhammad Barrage and Guddu Barrage. Linear plantations are found along river banks, irrigation canals, roads, and railways.

The planted area is still relatively small. In Punjab, of a total forested area of 0.3 million hectares, only 122,000 hectares are irrigated, while 3,000 hectares is linear plantations.

The Rakhs

The Rakhs are dry scrub forests grown in small patches on the arid plain. They provide insignificant quantities of fuel wood. Species include farash, bakin, jand, and karil.

Tidal Or Coastal Forests

These occur in the coastal wastelands from Karachi to Sir Creek, (Rennof Kutch) covering an area of about 300,000 hectares. As the coastal areas are submerged by the high tide twice a day, only coconut and grass grow in these salt water forests.

GLACIERS

A glacier is defined as a slowly moving river or mass of ice. Pakistan has more glaciers than any other land outside the North and South Poles. According to a recent survey, there are 1,214 glaciers in Pakistan. The glacier area lies among the valleys of the Karakoram and Hindukush Ranges and at the base of Nanga Parbat in the Himalayas. Pakistan's glacial area covers some 13,680 square kilometers which represents an average of 13 percent of the mountainous regions of the Upper Indus Basin.

Pakistan's glaciers can rightly claim to possess the greatest mass and collection of glaciated space on the face of earth. In fact, 37 percent of the Karakorams are under glaciers as compared with the Greater Himalayas (17 percent) and the European Alps (22 percent). The Karakorams' southern flanks (east and west of the Biafo Glacier) have a concentration of glaciers which works out to 59 percent of their total area.

Baltoro Glacier

Baltoro Glacier is one of the largest glaciers of the world, with an area of 529 square kilometers and 62 kilometers  in length. This glacier, fed by some 30 tributaries, constitutes a surface area of 129.39 square kilometers (471 square miles). Here, one can see four of the fourteen highest peaks in the world, over 8,000 meters above sea level.

Batura Glacier

Hunza Valley is the abode of a large number of glaciers. The most famous among them is Batura Glacier, the fifth longest glacier in the world, with an area of 220 square kilometers and 56 kilometers in length. Some other important glaciers are:

Biafo Glacier

Biafo Glacier is a huge river of ice 63 kilometers long, with an area of about 383 square kilometers. It descends from the central peaks of the Karakorams, having its snout at Khurdopin and flowing eastward into Braldu Valley about 10 kilometers east of Askole. The glacier is guarded from either side by massive granite peaks.

Hispar Glacier

Hispar Glacier covers an area of 343 square kilometers and has a length of 49 kilometers. It is one of a groups of four mountain glaciers surrounded by many smaller ones lying in a parallelogram. Part of Hispar Glacier lies in Nagar state in Gilgit Agency. Hispar joins the Biafo Glacier at an altitude of 5,154 meters (16,910 feet) to form an ice corridor 115.87 kilometers (72 miles) long.

Siachin Glacier

On the basis of recent estimates Siachin is the largest glacier in the world, which is 71 kms long and covers an area of 685 sq.kms. It is situated in the Karakoram.

LAKES

Chitral Valley Lakes

In Chitral Valley there are two lakes of considerable interest. One is at Shandur, 4,267 meters (nearly 12,000 feet) above sea level at the Gilgit Agency border. It is about 3 kilometers (2 miles) long and about 244 meters (800 feet) wide.

Gilgit And Hunza Valley Lakes

In Gilgit and Hunza Valley there are as many as twelve lakes, large and small: Phandar (3,040 meters/10,000 feet), Rama (4,267 meters/12,000 feet), Naltar (3,505 meters/10,500 feet), Gudai (2,438 meters/8,000 feet), and Bariot (3,352 meters/11,000 feet). Bariot Lake is the famous destination for the fabulous migratory Siberian ducks. There are a number of other lakes in the region, including Jutial, Palogabpuin, Shimshal, Minapin, Teo, and Darkush.

Hanna Lake

Hanna Lake is 10 kilometers from Quetta. Goldfish in the lake come swimming right up to the edge. A little distance away, the waters of the lake take on a greenish-blue tint. Right where the water ends, pine trees have been planted on the grassy slopes. The greenish-blue waters of the lake provide a rich contrast to the sandy brown of the hills in the background.

Katchura Lake

In the Baltistan Valley there are three beautiful lakes: Upper Katchura, Katchura, and Satpara. Upper Katchura is 25 miles from Skardu and Katchura is 26 kilometers 18 miles from Skardu.

Katchura Lake is a shimmering, peaceful, deep blue stretch of water 2,286 metres about 7,500 feet above sea level. Throughout the summer, many exotic and colourful flowers decorate its banks. White peach, apricot, and apple trees are laden with blossoms, ripening into fruit in the early autumn. Katchura apples enjoy a very high reputation all over the world. The lake offers great opportunities for trout fishing.

Keenjhar Lake

Keenjhar Lake, formerly Kalri Lake, is one of Karachi's sources of water. About 32 kilometers 20 miles long and 10 kilometers 6 miles wide, it has also been developed as a resort and offers sailboats for hire, fishing facilities, and bird watching. The National Highway to Hyderabad follows the west bank of the Indus across rich farmland irrigated by water from Keenjhar Lake.

Lalusar Lake

Situated in Kaghan Valley, Lulusar Lake is 48 kilometers 30 miles from Naran. It ripples at an altitude of 4,570 meters 15,000 feet with a rim of patterns in blue and gold reflecting the riotous colours of wildflowers on its banks. It is the main source of the River Kunhar, which flows down the meandering Kaghan Valley. There is plenty of trout fishing for the sporting traveller.

Manchar Lake

Manchar is a beautiful, picturesque lake. "Man" means "jewel," while "char" means "an expanse of water." The lake is oval in shape, extending northwest to southeast for about 10 miles with an average breadth of about 3 miles. Its depth varies from 8 to 16 meters.

After the rains, the lake doubles in length and width. In the dry season, the area of the lake is 30 square miles after the rains, the lake spreads across an area of 200 square miles. The lake is fed by the Nara and Aral Rivers. According to tradition, the lake is a bathing place for fairies and mermaids. There are several small islands in the lake. The main islands are Lal Chatto and Mashak. The lake is also famous for fowls and fishes.

Qarumbar Lake

Qarumbar Lake is at Baroghal, 3675 meters (about 12,000 feet) above sea level.

Rawal Lake

Rawal Lake is a large artificial reservoir catering for the water needs of Rawalpindi. The area around the lake has been planted with flowering trees and laid out with gardens, picnic spots, and secluded paths. The best places to picnic are on the far side of the lake, which also offers boating and fishing. To the west of the lake is the Islamabad Club, which offers different sporting facilities.

Saiful Muluk

In the mountains and valleys of Pakistan, there are some picturesque lakes no less fabulous than the mountains around them. Situated at very high altitudes ranging from 2,133 meters (7,000 feet) to 4,267 (14,000 feet) above sea level, these lakes are marvels of nature which have no parallel anywhere in the world. In fact, there are scores of lakes which are inaccessible. Several are larger than Saiful Muluk, but they are invisible from November to June, when they remain covered by snow.

Saiful Muluk is situated at an elevation of 10,200 feet. About 10 kilometers (6 miles) from Naran, the lake, one kilometer (half a mile) long, holds a perfectly clear mirror to the nearby Malika Parbat (Queen of the Mountains,) 5,180 metres (17,000 feet) high. Saiful Muluk offers excellent trout fishing.

There is a charming legend attached to the lake about a handsome prince called Saiful Muluk who fell in love with a fairy of the lake. He married the fairy, but when her demon lover appeared, he became angry at seeing the happy couple and flooded the entire valley in revenge. Of the fairies in the lake, some say they have deserted the place, while others believe they still come to dance at night, recounts the 1907 Gazetteer.

Satpara Lake

Satpara Lake is situated in Baltistan Valley. It is about 10 kilometers (6.5 miles) north of Skardu, surrounded by snowy mountains which are mirrored in every beautiful detail in the lake's crystal clear waters.

The lake has a fairy tale island in the middle which can be reached by country boats one can hire for the thrill of rowing. The lake also abounds in fish and it is considered an ideal spot for fishing.

Swat Valley Lakes

There are three lakes in Swat Valley:

Mahodand, near Ushu, is approachable only on foot. It is a small but extremely beautiful lake amidst a lush green plain.

Beshigran Lake is about 20 miles east of Madyan.

Kundal Lake, at a height of 10,500 feet lies northwest of Bahrain. It is the origin of the Uthrot River and is approachable from Uthrot Valley.

Tarbela Lake

Tarbela Lake is 91 kilometers (57 miles) long and can hold 11 million acre feet of water, enough to cover 11 million acres of land to a depth of one foot. The maximum depth of the lake is about 110 metres.

MOUNTAIN RANGES

There are two mountain groups in Pakistan, the northern mountains and the western mountains. The northern mountains include the Himalayan, the Karakoram, and the Hindukush Ranges.These high-altitude mountains are difficult to cross. A few passes link them, but due to heavy snowfall, traffic ceases during the winter months. This is why neighbouring countries to the north have had little effect on Pakistani culture.

The northern mountains act as both a climatic and physical barrier and sometimes demarcate international borders. During the winter, these mountains protect the plains from cold winds Central Asian winds. They also intercept the summer monsoon winds coming from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, causing rains in Pakistan. In spring and summer, snow-melt from the northern mountains feeds water into Pakistan's rivers. The Indus is one of several rivers and tributaries which cut across these ranges. During the rainy season, they carry enormous quantities of water which is used for irrigation and hydroelectric power production.

On the rainy southern slopes of these ranges are found magnificent and very valuable forests of timber, as well as cultivated fruit trees. The mountains have a number of health resorts, and in some places, precious minerals have been found.

Himalayas

The word "Himalaya" is taken from the Sanskrit language, in which "hima" means snow and "alaya" means abode. To the early geographers, these mountains were known as Gmaus and Himaus or Hemodas, and there is reason to believe that these names were applied to the western and eastern parts respectively, with the source of the Ganges being taken as the dividing line. The Himalayas include the highest mountains in the world, with more than 30 peaks rising to a height of 7,300 metres (24,000 feet) above sea level.

Although historically, the main Himalayas acted as a barrier to human movement, their offshoots remained "half open," occasionally letting foreign influences into the subcontinent. The Himalayas stretch uninterrupted for 2,500 kilometers 1,550 miles from west to east, between Nanga Parbat 26,660 feet in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir and Namcha Barwa 25,445 feet in Tibet. The Himalayas are bordered to the northwest by the Hindukush and Karakoram Ranges and to the north by the high plateau of Tibet. The width of the Himalayas from south to north varies between 125 and 250 miles. Their total area amounts to about 594,400 square kilometers (229,500 square miles).

Though India has sovereignty over most of the Himalayas, Pakistan and China occupy parts of them. In the state of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan has administrative control of 32,362 square miles of the range lying north and west of a ceasefire line established between India and Pakistan in 1948. China occupies 14,000 square miles in Ladakh District of Kashmir, as well as territory to the south of the McMahon Line, a 1914 boundary line limiting Tibetan sovereignty in the Assam Himalayas of north east India.

From south to north, the Himalayan ranges can be grouped into four parallel longitudinal mountain belts of varying widths. They are designated as the Outer or Sub-Himalayas; the Lesser or Lower Himalayas; the Great or Higher Himalayas; and the Tethys or Tibetan Himalayas. The most important peaks of the Himalayan Range are Dhaulaigri 26,810 feet, Mt. Everest 29,028 feet and Lhotse 27,923 feet.

The Telhati Hills rise in the north and northwest, where the Upper Indus Plain ends. These hills range from 100 to 320 metres. They are also called the Shiwalik Hills. The average height of the Lesser Himalayas is 5,000 metres. Most of Pakistan's northern hilly area is situated in the Lesser Himalayas, including hill resorts like Murree, Ayubia, Nathiagali, Abbottabad, and the Kaghan Valley. The highest range of the Lesser Himalayas is Pir Panjal.

The average height of the Greater Himalayas is 6,500 metres. They remain covered with snow all the year round. Their highest peak is Nanga Parbat, rising to a height of 8,250 metres above sea level. The valley of Kashmir lies between Pir Panjal and the Great Himalayas. Pakistan's mighty River Indus originates from these mountains. The important glaciers of the Himalayas are Rongluk Glacier, Kyetrak Glacier and Kangchonjuro Glacier.

The Himalayas are drained by 19 major rivers,of which the Indus and Brahmaputra are the largest. The Himalayas, as a great climatic divide affecting air and water circulation systems, exercise a dominating influence upon meteorological conditions in the Indian subcontinent to the south and in the Central Asian highlands to the north. At places such as Skardu, Gilgit, and Lek in the Indus Valley to the north of the Greater Himalayas, only 3-6 inches of rainfall occurs every year. The rocks of the Sub-Himalayan ranges are rich in animal fossils.

Hindukush

International boundaries running through the Hindukush are primarily those of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Karamber Pass lies about 40 miles west of the Chinese border, while to the west, the Hindukush Range approaches the border between Afghanistan and Iran without extending into Iranian territory. The Hindukush Rnage lies between the Indus and Kabul Rivers. The average height of this range is to 10,000 to 16,000 feet above sea level. Most of the mountains remain snow-covered during the winter. The Kabul, Swat, Panjkore, and Kunar Rivers flow through the minor ranges before joining the Indus from the Western side.

The Pakistan-Afghanistan border follows the main watershed of the Hindukush Range throughout its eastern region, from Lupsuk peak just south of Tirchmir, the highest peak of the Hindukush. Tirchmir is in the north, and the mountains around it are capped with perpetual snow and ice. Their height decreases southward in Mohmand Territory and the Malakand Hills to only 5,000-6,000 feet. From the Dorah Pass, the boundary leaves the main watershed and follows minor spears until it crosses the Kabul River, continuing along the crest of the Safed Koh Range toward the south.

Three main sections of the Hindukush may be defined. These are the Eastern Hindukush, which runs from Karambar Pass in the east to Dorah Pass, not far from the Tirchmir; the Central Hindukush, which continues to Khawak Pass, north of Kabul; and the Western Hindukush, also known as the Koh-i-Baba, which gradually descends to the Kirmu Pass.

Important peaks of the Hindukush Range are Tirchmir, Noshaq, and Anjuman, and the major glacier is Chiantar. The range separates two major Asian climatic zones. They form a barrier to the movement of winds. In summer, rain-bearing winds coming from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea cannot cross these mountains, and so they cause rains in Pakistan and India. In winter, severely cold winds blowing from Central Asia are stopped by these mountains from reaching the plains of Pakistan.

The southern slopes receive heavy rainfall and consequently are covered with forests of deodar, pine, poplar, and willow. The more northerly ranges and north-facing slopes receive practically no rain and are therefore barren.

There is a considerable traffic from the mountains to the plains in winter and from the plains to the mountains in summer. The permanent settlers grow corn, maize, barley, wheat, and rice on terraced fields and also raise orchards of apples, apricots, peaches, and grapes.

Karakorams

Karakoram is a Turkish word meaning "black pebbles," which hardly describes these shining, white-clad peaks, although there are black rocks at the Karakoram Pass. The mountains of the Karakoram Range rise to the northwest of the Himalayas. The Karakorams extend from north of Kashmir to Gilgit. The average height of the range is 7,000 metres. The highest peak in the range is K-2 (Godwin Austin), at 8,611 metres the second highest mountain in the world. Thus it was the first in this area to attract mountain climbers. T. G. Montgomery first measured this mountain from a high point near Kashmir in 1857. Convinced of its extraordinary height, he called it K-2 (Karakoram-2), the mountain's survey number. His calculations proved it to be the second highest mountain in the world.  In 1861, climber, Godwin Austin approached K-2 peak. Some people wanted to name it Mt. Godwin Austin, but others thought it wrong to name it after an individual, so its survey number, K-2, became its official name. Locally, it is called Chagori.

A recent geological report speculates that over the next 100 years, the height of K-2 will approach that of Everest, the highest peak in the world. The calculation is based upon the phenomenon of the upthrust of land, which could result in a gradual rise in height of the mountain. A study commissioned in 1991 declared K-2 the world's most polluted mountain because of trekkers and climbers who leave behind empty bottles, food containers, polyethylene bags, and other trash.

The Karakorams, along with the Pamirs, the Hindukush, the Kun Lun, and the Himalayas, intersect to form a complex geographical feature known as the Pamir Knot. Together with the Himalayas, the Karakorams account for 96 of the earth's 109 highest mountains. Baltistan alone contains 10 of the world's highest peaks. The area not only boasts some of the finest alpine sights in the world, but is also home to the greatest extent of glaciers outside the polar regions.

Of the world's 14 peaks exceeding 8,000 meters five are in Pakistan. These are situated at the head of Baltoro Glacier in the Karakorams. They are K-2 (8,611.5 meters/28,253 feet), Broad peak (8,046.72 meters/26,400 feet), Gasherbtum-I (8,068 meters/26,360 feet), Gasherbtum-II (8,034.52 meters/26,360 feet), and the Hidden Peak (8,068 meters). In the Lesser Karakorams, there are also such great peaks as Rakaposhi (7,788 meters/25,552 feet), scores of peaks of 7,000 meters (22,966 feet), and hundreds of nameless summits below 6,096 meters (20,000 feet).

The valley of Gilgit lies between the Karakorams and the Hindukush. The Karakoram Highway, which passes through these mountains, is the highest trade route in the world. The KKH can be justifiably called the eighth wonder of the world. It took almost 20 years of planning and execution. Construction of the highway, 774 kilometers long, involved blasting almost 30 million cubic yards of rock and earth and required the use of over 8,000 tons of explosives and 80,000 tons of cement. Approximately 15,000 men of the Pakistan Army and Chinese workers were involved in its construction. About 408 Pakistanis and Chinese were killed in the process. This road links Pakistan with China and is accessible through Gilgit.

The Western Mountains

The western low mountains spread from the Swat and Chitral Hills in a north-south direction (along which Alexander the Great led his army in 327 BC) and over a large portion of the North West Frontier Province. North of the Kabul River, their altitude ranges from 5,000-6,000 feet in Mohmand and Malakand. The aspect of these hills is exceedingly dreary. There are dry rivers between long rows of rocky hills and crags, scantily covered with coarse grass, scrub wood, and dwarf palm.

The mountains of Swat and Chitral includes three small ranges extending from the Hindukush to the Kabul River. Three rivers flow through these ranges: the Swat or Chitral in the north, the Kanhar in the south, and the Panjkora in the middle. The Lawarac Hills in Chitral receive heavy snowfall in winter, when all routes to Chitral are blocked. The Lawarac Pass is also situated in this range.

South of the Kabul River, the strike of the ranges changes from north-south to west-east. The west-east strike is strongly represented by the Koh-i-Safed Range. The general height of this range is 3,600 meters the highest peak is Sakaram, rising to 4,761 meters. Outlying mountains in Kohat District rise to 900 meters.

South of the Koh-i-Safed are the Waziristan Hills. They are arid and extend to the banks of the Gomal River. Three rivers, the Gomal, Kurram, and Tochi, flow through these hills. The Suleiman Range begins to the south of the Gomal River and extends north-south. Its highest peak is Takht-i-Suleiman, with height of 3,443 meters. At the southern end are the Bugti and Marri Hills, draining westward to the Bolan River. These mountains are barren except in the rainy season, when small brooks begin to flow. The most important river of this region is the Bolan.

The Kirthar Hills lie to the south of the Suleiman Range and along the western edge of the Lower Indus Valley. These are low, dry hills. South of them flow the Hub and Lyari Rivers, which fall into the Arabian sea near Karachi.

Passes through the western bordering mountains are of special geographical and historical interest. These include the Khyber, Kurram, Tochi, Gomal, and Bolan.

The Salt Range

The Salt Range is the name given to two lines of low, rugged hills and the fertile land between them. The Salt Range mountains are barren, but rich in minerals, containing coal, gypsum, and one of the richest salt fields in the world. Its name comes from vast deposits of rock salt which were left in its embrace by the receding sea. These salt deposits have been mined in Khewra since ancient times.

The Salt Range lies between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers in the Punjab. The range is approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) long from east to west, and its width in the central and eastern parts is 5-19 miles. Starting near Jhelum District in the Jogi Tilla and Bakrala ridges, the range crosses the Indus near Kalabagh. The average height of the Salt Range is about 700 meters (2,200 feet). It rises to 1,522 meters (4,992 feet) near Sakesar in Khushab District. The landscape in the Salt Range is varied. It contrasts sharply with the Northern Areas. Stark masses of rock provide the first mountain barrier between the plains of the subcontinent and Central Asia.

The range consists of low mountains from which the top strata have been removed by erosion. Forming the southern terrace of the Potohar Plateau 1,700 feet southwest of Rawalpindi, the range consists of two asymmetrical parallel ridges divided by a longitudinal valley. In the west and east, the range divides into separate mountain masses or massifs. West of Sakesar, the course of the range swings to the northwest, with low, longitudinal ranges. The Indus river breaks through at Kalabagh, flowing between vertical cliffs inaccessible to communication.

The summits of the Salt Range are slanting, hilly and plateau-like. The highest peaks are Sakesar in the west and Chel (1,128 meters/3,700 feet) in the east. On the northern slopes, a system of deep ravines has developed. There are small lakes of karstic (sinkhole) origin without external drainage, including the beautiful salt lake, Kallar Kahar. The water level of Lake Nammal is maintained by a dam. The Nammel River disappears into the Indus alluvial plain before reaching the river. In the east, only the Bhwes River has a constant flow into the Jhelum River.

The Salt Range is said to record 600 million years of earth's history, with thick deposits from Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic times. On the southern slopes of the Salt Range, in Khewra, Warcha, and Kalabagh, there are large deposits of rock salt. Smaller salt deposits also occur in Jatta, Bahadur Khel, and Kharak. Coal deposits are found at Dandot, Pidh, and Makarwal Kheji. Traces of petroleum are associated with limestone and sandstone deposits in the western part of the Salt Range, and in the eastern part, layers of bituminous shale, dolomite, and bauxite are found. Large deposits of high-grade gypsum and anhydride also occur. Economically, salt, coal, and limestone mining are the most important.

The use of land for agriculture is limited because of a lack of water for irrigation. Small valleys are terraced for cultivation of irrigated crops, using the water of lakes and springs. In the valleys, dry farming prevails. To the southeast, a small, deciduous forest with acacia, pine, and wild olive trees has been preserved by conservation.

The only population centre of any size associated with the Salt Range is Jhelum. Most of the towns in the range serve the mines and quarries. The main ethnic groups of the region are the Pandzhabt, Pzhat and Arain people, who speak Indian languages (mainly Lakhrda). While there is marginal farming in the valleys and on the few terraces, and some animal husbandry on the overgrazed hill tracts, the principal occupation is salt mining.

As it lies on the ancient route to the Punjab plains, the Salt Range is steeped in history. Successive waves of adventurers and conquerors have left behind legends of their visits.

PASSES

Bolan Pass

The Bolan Pass has for centuries been the route traversed by traders, invaders, and nomadic hordes travelling between the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and Central Asia. At the mouth of the Bolan Pass lies the city of Quetta. For many centuries this historic pass has served as the main entrance to the Quetta District. It is historically significant as the gateway used by most immigrants from Central Asia in their drive to discover new homelands in South Asia.

The pass extends from Kolpur, known to the natives as Kharlakai Kotal, to Rindli and is about 54 miles long. It is widest in the Laleji Plain on the south, narrowing to a gorge known as Afghan Ponzak. The elevation rises from 750 to 5,900 feet.

The Bolan area is bounded on the east by the Sarawan and Kachhi Divisions of the Kalat region and is enclosed between high mountains belonging to the Central Brahui Range. The Bolan River rises near Kolpur, but the water makes its first appearance at Sar-i-Bolan and disappears again near Abigum. At Bibi Nani, it is joined from the west by the Sarawan River, and from this point possesses a perennial stream. Many hill torrents empty into the river, causing violent floods after a heavy rain.

In 1877, the Bolan Pass came under British control. Before this, it was under the control of the Khan of Kalat, but the Kurd and Raisani tribes had acquired rights to levy transit dues. The pass was also a favourite raiding ground of the Marri and Kakar tribes. In pursuance of a policy of free trade between Kalat and India, posts were established in the pass soon after the British occupation in 1877. Along with the Khyber Pass leading to Kabul, the Bolan Pass was one of the two important "Gates of India." Proposals to construct railways through these passes were advanced in 1857, but there was no system of strategic railways until 1878. On the Bolan side, the nearest railway connection with Afghanistan was in Sukkur until a line to Quetta was opened in August 1886. In 1887, a broad gauge line was opened between Quetta and Bostan. In addition to the railway line, a metalled road traverses the pass, connecting Sibi and Quetta.

In the vicinity of the Bolan Pass there are only two villages of any size: Mach and Kirta. The Kuchiks, a section of the Rind Baloch, are the cultivating proprietors of the soil. The total area of cultivated land is 3,300 acres, about one-third of which is generally cropped each year. Most of the cultivation is in Kirta, which is irrigated from the permanent stream of the Bolan. The water and land are divided for each crop according to the number of adult males among the Kuchiks. The principal crop is wheat. Some barley is also cultivated in the summer. On the surrounding hills   grow pistachio trees and a few olive trees.

Thin seams of coal in the Ghazij strata near Old Mach are worked by some private firms. Good sulphur has also been discovered. However, no trade of importance exists, although Mach is a coal loading railway station. Mach is also known for its jail, which is situated near the station. All traffic to and from Quetta passes through the Bolan Pass, which thus serves as the lifeline for Baloochistan's socioeconomic development.

Karakar Pass

The Karakar Pass is situated at a height of 1,336 metres (4,384 feet) above sea level. From the top of the pass, one can view Buner Valley. It was at this pass that the Emperor Akbar lost most of his 8,000-man army in an abortive attempt to invade Swat in 1586. From the top of the pass down to Barikot, the road runs through the pine forest.

Khunjerab Pass

Khunjerab Pass, at 4,733 meters (15,528 feet), is the highest border crossing on a paved road in the world. It connects Pakistan with China. A red sign announces, "China: drive right," and a green sign says "Pakistan: drive left." A monument records that the pass is 4,877 meters (16,000 feet) above sea and was opened in 1982. Khunjerab Pass is on the continental watershed: water on the Pakistani side flows down to the Indian Ocean, while that on the Chinese side is swallowed up by the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin. The name Taklamakan literally means, "If you go in, you don't come out."

The scenery is remarkably different on either side of the pass. On the Pakistani side are barren, deserted gorges with no sign of human life for the last 40 kilometers (25 miles) before the border. The Chinese side is a wide, open, grassy, high-altitude plateau with herds of yaks, sheep, and goats tended by Tajik herders, who live in yurts.

Khyber Pass

Khyber is a Hebrew word meaning "fort." Paradoxical as it seems, Khyber, because of its unique geography, looks like a citadel. Situated in the Suleiman Range, the Khyber Pass connects Peshawar with Kabul. It is 55 kilometers in length.

The Khyber, known in history as a corridor of invasions and the main trade route between Central and South Asia, is one of the most important passes in the world. For both historic and strategic reasons it has served as a gateway to the subcontinent. The Khyber Pass has seen countless invasions. The Aryan, Persian, and Greek armies came through the Khyber Pass, bringing such conquerors as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Mahmud of Ghazni, Timur, Babar, Nadir Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali. In the 19th century, the British feared a Russian invasion of the subcontinent through the Khyber Pass.

The Khyber Pass has been a silent witness to countless great events in the history of mankind. The Aryan descending upon the fertile Indus Plains in 1500 BC, subjugating the indigenous Dravadian population and settling there to open a glorious chapter in history of civilization. The Persian hordes under Darius (6th century BC) crossed into the Punjab to annex yet another province to the Archaemenian Empire. Alexander crossed the pass in 326 BC, to be followed by the Scythians, the Parthians, the Mughals, and the Afghans. The Turk armies of the ruler of Ghazna Subaktagin, first crossed it in 997 AD. Later, his son, Mahmud of Ghazna, marched through it seventeen times between 1001 and 1030 to attack India. Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghauri crossed the Khyber Pass in 1175 to consolidate the gains of the Muslims in India. He used the Khyber Pass again in 1193 to match his strength against that of Pirthvi Raj Chouhan on the battlefield at Tarain.

In 1398, Amir Timur, the firebrand from Central Asia, invaded India through the Khyber Pass, and his descendant, Zahiruddin Babur, made use of it first in 1505 and then in 1526 to establish the mighty Mughal Empire. The Afghan King Ahmad Shah Abdali crossed the Khyber Pass in 1761 and crushed the Maratha confederacy on the fields of Panipat. The Khyber Valley saw a great deal of fighting between 1839 and 1919. The British used the Khyber Pass during three Afghan wars in 1839, 1878, and 1919.

The chapter of fighting in the Khyber, however, came to close with the independence of Pakistan in 1947. The invasion of the Khyber Pass is still on, not by conquerors but by tourists. Due to the war in Afghanistan, certain restrictions were imposed in 1979, but they have since been removed.

The Khyber Pass begins 11 miles west of Peshawar, some 3 miles from Jamrud, and stretches up to the Pakistan-Afghan border at Torkham, 35 miles from Peshawar. Starting from the foothills of the Suleiman Range, it gradually rises to an elevation of 3,000 feet above sea level. The elevation of the hills of the pass reaches 3,373 feet at Landi Kotal, an old caravanserai which is now a big trading centre of Khyber Agency.

From a geographical point of view, the pass is one of nature's masterpieces. The narrow, steep ascent to Ali Masjid, a village and at the summit of the pass some 10-1/2 miles from Jamrud, is its most difficult part. The pass enters Afghan territory in Torkham, about 6 miles beyond Landi Kotal. The marketplace of Landi Kotal, 29 miles from Peshawar, is a favorite tourist haunt. There are three roads in the Khyber Pass: a metalled road with many bends and curves, a mule track known as the Caravan Route, and the railway extension, completed in 1925-26. The railway line, threading its way through 34 tunnels and over 90 culverts and bridges, is a remarkable feat of engineering. The aggregate length of the tunnels is about 3 miles. The railway line terminates at Landi Khana, 32 miles from Peshawar, and the metalled black-top road, running parallel to the ancient caravan route, continues up to Torkham. Passenger and cargo vehicles ply freely on this road without armed escorts, a possibility unthinkable before the establishment of Pakistan.

Malakand Pass

The Malakand Pass begins at Dargai. The road across the pass is in good condition, but is always crowded with a continuous stream of trucks. From a viewpoint about one kilometer before the top of the pass, one can see the Swat Canal in the valley below. It was built by the British to channel water from the Swat River through a tunnel under the Malakand Pass to the plains around Mardan.

On the left, Malakand Fort guards the road at the top of the pass. On the other side of the pass, the road descends through the market town of Bat Khela, with a Hindu Shahi fort perched above it, and continues past the headworks of the Swat Canal to the Swat River. The first bridge across the river is at Chakdara, which carries the road to Dir and Chitral.

Margalla Pass

The Margalla Pass is 28 kilometers from Islamabad. It has enjoyed a historical importance quite out of proportion to its size, for it is little more than a gentle climb to a cutting through a low line of hills. It could never have presented a serious obstacle to any invader.

The Margalla pass was the ancient and traditional route from the west and northwest through the hills. Immediately beyond the present-day road cutting, up on the left, is a short section of the precursor of the Grand Trunk Road, the Shahi (Imperial) Road, probably built in the early 16th century by Sher Shah Suri, the great Afghan ruler who deposed Babar's son Humayun for a short while, and who built Rohtas Fort. The road was engineered, for its cobbles are still intact today.

The first Moghal emperor Babar certainly used the Margalla Pass on his raids and invasions of the subcontinent. In his memoirs, he calls it the Sangjaki Pass, after a nearly village. The later Moghuls also used it on their way to Kashmir in the spring, when shorter routes over the Pir Panjal mountains were blocked by snow. Jehangir wrote in his memoirs that the name Margalla meant a place to plunder caravans.

Shandur Pass

Shandhur Pass, at a height of 3,118 meters (10,230 feet) above sea level, is situated between the Karakoram and the Hindukush Ranges. It connects Gilgit with Chitral. From the top, one can see lower Chitral, with rows of barren mountains, and in the distance, the snow-clad Hindukush. The descent is steep and winding, dropping 2,000 metres (7,000 feet) from the top of the pass down to the river.

The world's most exciting polo tournament is played on top of the Shandur Pass. The world's highest polo ground is a place quite unique in itself, surrounded by some of the most spectacular mountains in the world. The first polo tournament took place at Shandur Top in 1936, and by 1989, eight polo tournaments had been played there. Since 1989 the polo tournament has become an annual event held from July 4-7.

Beside these important Passes there are a few more which are listed below;

Babusar Pass: Babusar Pass is situated at a height of 14,931 feet. It connects Abbottabad and Gilgit.

Baroghil Pass: Baroghil Pass, situated at a height of 12, 480 feet connects Chitral with Wakhan (Afghanistan).

Dargai Pass: It connects Mardan with Malakand.

Dorah Pass: Dorah Pass is situated at a height of 14,972 feet. It connects Chitral with Nooristan (Afghanistan).

Gomal Pass: Gomal Pass connects D. I. Khan in Pakistan with Ghazni in Afghanistan.

Khankun Pass: Khankun Pass is situated at the height of 16,600 feet. It connects Chitral with Wakhan (Afghanistan).

Khojak Pass: Khojak Pass is situated at a height of 7,575 feet. It connects Balochistan with Afghanistan.

Kilik Pass: Kilik Pass, situated at a height of 15,600 feet connects Gilgit with China.

Mintaka Pass: Mintaka Pass, situated at a height of 15,450 feet connects Gilgit and Kashgar.

Muslaq Pass: Muslaq Pass has a height of 19,030 feet and connects Baltistan and Yarkand (China).

Tochi Pass: Tochi Pass links Bannu with Ghazni in Afghanistan.

Zoji La Pass: Zoji La Pass, situated at a height of 11,580 feet connects Srinagar and Lah.

PLAINS

About 40 per cent of the land in Pakistan is made up of plains created by sediment brought in by the Indus River and its tributaries. The Indus Plain can be divided into two parts: the Upper and Lower Indus Plains.

 Upper Indus Plain

The Upper Indus Plain extends from Attock to Mithankot, the junction of the Indus River with its eastern tributaries. It includes most parts of the province of Punjab. Its elevation ranges between 180 and 300 meters, with the northeastern part being comparatively higher. Most of the plain consists of alluvial soil brought in by the rivers, but near Sargodha, Chiniot, and Sangla, some old, dry hills appear above the plain. These are known as the Kirana Hills.

Five large rivers of the Punjab drain this plain. The land lying between two rivers is known as a "doab." Thus the Upper Plain can be divided into four doabs, plus the Bahawalpur and Derajat Plains. The Bari Doab lies between the Beas and Ravi Rivers, the Rachna Doab between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Chaj Doab between the Chenab and the Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the Indus and the Jhelum.

The Bahawalpur Plain is grouped among the doabs, because the riverine tract, known locally as Sind, is followed by an upland identical with the bars of the doabs. The northeastern part is a cover and flood plain, the central part is a sand hill plain which has been largely levelled and irrigated, and the southwestern portion is the cover flood plain of Dera Nawab. This area is a reclaimed part of the Thar Desert. Along its southern border is the Ghaggar Channelway, a depression three miles in width.

The Derajat Plain is seamed with numerous stream and torrents, as is the Himalayan Piedmont on the northern border of the Indus Plain. The land here varies between flat and gently undulating, and the rivers have a comparatively steep gradient. The riverine tract, known locally as Sindhu, is narrow.

 Lower Indus Plain

Mithankot is known as the junction of the Indus River with its eastern tributaries. Beyond Mithankot, the Indus flows alone and carries not only its own water, but also that of its eastern and western tributaries. While flowing through the province of Sindh, it becomes several kilometers wide, especially during the flood season.

The Indus flows very slowly, depositing most of its silt on its bed, which raises it above the level of the sandy plain. The land on either side is protected by the embankments or bunds. These are sometimes breached during the flood season.

The Lower Indus Plain is structurally different from the Upper Indus Plain. The Lower Indus Plain has been formed by the changing course of a single great river, and its deposits are of a comparatively recent origin. The Lower Indus Plain, situated between the left bank of the Indus River and the Thar Desert, is a level alluvial plain. It is fertile, but rainfall is scanty, and agricultural activities cannot be carried out without irrigation. Areas situated on the western side of the Indus are comparatively less fertile, while areas lying to the northwest suffer from waterlogging and salinity.

The Deltaic Plain

The Indus Delta begins near Thatta (Sindh), where the Indus distributes itself into a number of branches and finally joins with the waters of the Arabian Sea. The tidal deltaic area covers an area between 36 to 45 square kilometers. Submerged during high tides, it supports mangrove swamps. The old deltaic lands in the south are being reclaimed by the canals of the Ghulam Muhammad Barrage, but most of the delta is a barren wasteland.

 Kachhi-Sibi Plain

The Kachhi-Sibi Plain is bounded on the north by the Marri-Bugti Range and on the west by the Kalat Range. Surrounded on three sides by arid mountains, it is a barren, desolate area in which heat, aridity, and uniformly textured soils create ideal conditions for mirages.

Sindh Plain

The Sindh Plain forms the major part of the Lower Indus Plain. The Upper Sindh Plain is agriculturally less developed, and more waterlogged and saline, than areas further south. Lake Manchhar is alternately full or dry, according to the level of the Indus. The central part of the plain has a uniform landscape, but one outstanding feature is the Rohri Cuesta, a ridge of nummulitic limestone, attaining a height of 80 meters and extending 48 kilometers south from Sukkur.

The Lower Sindh Plain, which starts from Hyderabad, is predominantly a cover flood plain. The Ganjo Takkar Ridge, a cuesta of Kirthar limestone and an outlier of the Kohistan Ranges, stretches southward from Hyderabad for a distance of about 24 kilometers.

PLATEAUS

Balochistan Plateau

The vast plateau of Balochistan lies west of the Suleiman and Kirthar Ranges. Its height varies between 600 and 900 meters. Barren hills run across the plateau from northeast to southwest. The Toba Kakar and Chagai Ranges in the north separate the Balochistan Plateau from Afghanistan. The Ziarat and Muslim Bagh peaks rise to a height of 2,500 meters. In the centre of the plateau lie the central Brahui and North Makran Hills, while in the south is the Makran Range.

Most of the northwestern part of the plateau is a desert. The salt water lake Hamun Mashkhel is situated here. There is no big river in this part of the plateau, and there is very little rainfall. The rivers of coastal Makran, the Porali, Hingol, and Dasht, flow into the Arabian Sea. The rivers flow from the Suleiman  Range and falls into the Arabian Sea.

Valuable minerals like coal, iron, chromite, copper, and natural gas have been found in many parts of this region.

Potohar Plateau

The Potohar Plateau has an area of 12,944 square kilometers, with an elevation of 300-600 meters. It is bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west by the Indus River, on the north by the Kala Chitta Range and the Margalla Hills, and on the south by the Salt Range.

The plateau slopes from northeast to southwest and, with the exception of the southeastern portion, which drains into the Jhelum, belongs to the Soan Basin. Above the surface of the Soan Basin rise the limestone and sandstone hills of Khairi, Murat, Kheir Mar, and Kala Chitta. The Potohar Plateau is Pakistan's earliest proven oil-bearing region and has the country's first and oldest oil refinery, located in Rawalpindi (Morgah).

The plateau is drained by the Haro and Soan Rivers. Its topography is extremely varied, consisting of ridges, troughs, and basins. A large part of the plateau has been eroded and dissected by streams.

RIVERS

Pakistan possesses a number of rivers which are tributaries to the Indus. Five main rivers joining its eastern side are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, besides three minor rivers, the Soan, Haro, and Siran, which drain certain sub-mountainous areas. A number of comparatively small rivers join the Indus on the west side. The biggest is the Kabul, with its main tributaries, the Swat, Punj Kora, and Kunar. The Kurram, Gomal, Kohat Tai, Tank, and several other small streams also join the Indus on the right side. All the main rivers of Pakistan originate from the rainfall and snow-melt in the northern mountains.

To solve the water dispute between India and Pakistan, the Indus Basin Water Treaty was signed in 1960. According to that treaty, the three eastern rivers (the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) were given to India, while the western rivers (the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) were awarded to Pakistan.

Beas River

The Beas is now the shortest of Punjab's rivers. Only 247 miles long, it joined the Sutlej near Hariko in the 18th century. Originally, it joined the Chenab at Panjnad. The rim station for this river is at Mandiplan near Talwara, district Hoshiarpur.

Two dams have been built over the Beas, the Pandoh and Pong Dams. The Ravi-Beas link carries the water of the Madhopur. After completion of the Thein Dam in the entire waters of the Ravi will be stored and used in India.

Chenab River

The Chenab River originates in Kulu and Kangra districts of Himachel Pardesh (India). The two chief streams of the Chenab, the Chandra and Bhaga, rise on opposite sides of Baralcha Pass at an elevation of about 16,000 feet. These join at Tandi in Jammu and Kashmir, nearly 9,090 feet above mean sea level.

The combined streams, after t